Barnouw, Victor. "Acculturation and Personality among the Wisconsin Chippewa",American Anthropologist, LII (October, 1950), 1-152. Acculturation of the Chippewa is contrasted with culture change among the Dakotas in certain areas. Differences in the cultures of the two groups are attributed to economic, social and geographical background factors, and these in turn contribute to different patterns of culture change. Some of the Dakotas traits which are contrasted with the Chippewa are their military organization, child-parent relationships and attitudes toward non-Indians.

Benedict, Ruth F. "The Vision, in Plains Culture," American Anthropologist, XXIV (January, 1922), 1-23. A complete account of the variations found in the concept of the vision among the Plains Indians. The Dakotas are characterized as combining visions with self-torture. The Sun Dance is given as an example of a ceremony in which mature warriors put themselves through an ordeal after seeking a vision. The vision-seekers did not require a laity, and thus the Dakotas had their shamen to aid the seeker in obtaining his guardian spirit but they lacked a priest class in their religious organization.

Blish, Helen H. "The Ceremony of the Sacred Bow of the Oglala Dakota", American Anthropologist, XXXVI (January, 1934) , 180-187. The Sacred Bow, sometimes translated "Medicine Bow", was borrowed by the Dakotas f rom the Southern Cheyenne with their Sacred Arrow Prophet tradition. The ceremonial was designed to prepare the warriors for battle and was held in such high esteem that only the warriors of greatest strength and courage were permitted to participate. A complete description of the organization, emblems, paint markings, regalia and decorations used in the ceremonial are given in this article .

Dorsey, J. Uwen. "Migration of Siouan Tribes", The American Naturalist, XX, March 1886), 211-222 The author traces the early movements of Siouan tribes on the northern plains this article. He briefly mentions the westward migration of the Dakotas and their contacts with Winnebagos, Ponkas, Crows, Iowas and Omahas.

Erickson, Erick. "Observations on Sioux Education", The Journal of Psychology,VII (January, 1939) , 101-156. This article is a very complete analysis of the development of Dakota personality. The author indicates the importance of the internationalization of traditional culture values, the conflict between the values of home and school, and the resulting confusion and apathy which occurs when the educational system is directed to changing the traditional values which are taught in the home.

Fletcher, Alice C. "An Average Day in Camp among the Sioux", Science, VI (October, 1885), 285-287. Rising, washing, eating breakfast, taking down the lodge, gathering the ponies, packing, riding the prairie trails, and camping again are the activities of an average day. In the evening the food is prepared and eaten, the children play games, there may be a little improvised dancing. Courtship among the young people may be initiated and the old men may engage in story telling . There are some comments on kinship customs and in general on the way of life described in the article.

Fletcher, Alice C. "The Emblematic Use of the Trees in the Dakotan Group," Science, IV (October, 1896), 475-487. The author studies the legends of the Dakotas in order to reconstruct their prehistory. She says that their religious development from the time they lived in isolated bands is revealed by "tracing the emblematic use of the tree." Religious ceremonies in which the tree plays a symbolic part, such as the Sun Dance, are discussed , along with the gradual evolution of new religious rituals.

Gilmore, Melvin R. "Some Cosmogonic Ideas of the Dakota," American Anthropologist, XXVIII (October, 1926), 570-572, The cardinal directions and their significance and the meaning of visions are discussed by the author of this article. The reported meanings are given with little analysis or interpretation.

Goldfrank, Esther S. "Historic Change and Social Character: A study of the Teton Dakota," American Anthropologist, XLV(January, 1943), 67-83. A concise breakdown of the bands of the Tetons and a complete history of these bands before and after their defeat is presented. The emphasis of the writer is on the in-group hostility and its shift to antagonism toward the conquerors and their agents. The effect on the economy and social structures of Dakota society is also discussed in this period of catastrophe.

Hasserick, Royal B. "Teton Dakota Kinship System," American Anthropologist, XLVI (April, 1914), 338-348. The pattern of kinship among the Teton Dakotas is very completely studied in this article. The structure of the family, the terms of kinship address, the kinship attitudes, and the conventional kinship behavior are presented in a systematic anthropological typology. The study is , however designed more to explain the details in the system than to indicate the values and attitudes which caused the system to function smoothly. The accurate use of classificatory techniques has not been surpassed in any work dealing with the Tetons.

Herzog, George. "Plains Ghost Dance and Great Basin Music," American Anthropologist, XXXVII (November, 1935), 403-407. The music of the plains Ghost Dance originated in the Great Basin Area and was interpreted by the Dakotas. The Teton pattern is described as of limited range and symmetrical with every phase repeated twice. Very few songs of the Tetons have been recorded, but they are similar to the songs of other plains groups.

Howard, James H. "The Dakota Heyoka Cult," The Scientific Monthly, LXXVIII (April,1954), 254-258. Individuals who have seen the thunder spirit in a vision must assume the roles of anti-natural clowns. On ceremonial occasions they must wear long-nosed masks and ragged clothing and do all things in exactly the opposite of the normal manner. If they fail to perform this humiliating ritual, they fear that they will be struck by lightning. The cult is still found in modified or restricted form on the Dakota reservations. In some cases it has degenerated to the point of being merely farcical with anyone acting the part of the heyoka. The element of sacredness is found only in extremely conservative reservation communities. The author of this article proposes that its retention is related to their opposition to non-Indian ways, and may be used as an expression of frustration and of satire of their tormentors.

Howard, James, H. "The Tree Dwellers Cult of the Dakotas," Journal of American Folklore, LXVII (1955), 169-174. The legend of a folk character who lived in trees and lured travelers astray or granted special favors was most common among eastern Dakotas, but it was also well known among the Tetons. The Oglalas' conception of these forest dwellers, as well as their ceremonial rites in which these spirits were given attention, are described in this article.

Humphrey, Norman D. "Police and Tribal Welfare in Plains Indian Cultures," Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, XXXIII (May, 1942). The police and warriorsocieties of the plains Indians are considered in this article from, the point of view of their contribution to tribal welfare. An explanation is given of the interrelationship of chiefs, council and society, and various methods used to prevent violation of tribal orders. The study generalizes for all plains tribes but would include the Dakotas.

Linton, Ralph. "Nativistic Movements," American Anthropologist, XLV (April, 1943), 230-240. This general article attempts a systematic analysis of nativistic phenomena, and the Ghost Dance is used as an illustration of a typical movement.

McCracken, Harold. "The Sacred White Buffalo," Natural History, LV (May, 1946), 304-309. The significance of the hide of the white buffalo to the plains Indians is attributed to its supernatural powers. The sacred hide is venerated more than almost any other ceremonial property. The destruction of the buffalo is also described, and the point is made that one of the primary uses made by the Indians of the animals was the use of the hides and other portions of the animal for ceremonial purposes.

Mekeel, H. Scudder. "A Discussion of Culture Change as Illustrated by Material from a Teton-Dakota Community," American Anthropologist, XXXIV (March, 1932) , 274-285. The political organization of an Oglala community, observed during the summer of 1930, is studied in order to contrast past organization (as analysed by Wissler in 1912) with the author's observations. The group observed was composed of 950 descendants of the hostiles led by Red Cloud living in the White Clay district on the Pine Ridge Reservation. In contrasting nomadic activities , for example, the author shows how going to f airs and rodeos has replaced the group hunting activities.

Mekeel, H. Schudder, "An Anthropologist's Observations on Indian Education", Progressive Education, XIII (March, 1936), 151-159. An appraisal of Indian education based on a study on the Pine Ridge Reservation indicated that the changes in Dakota culture should be influencing the goals of education. Using the examples of the Teton attitudes toward accumulation of wealth and kinship practices, the article shows how the imposition of the usual education upon Indians in their own culture is doomed to failure. The principal thesis is that, along with specific knowledge, the life values and drives possessed by a white community have not been, and perhaps cannot be, transferred to the Indians without administrative understanding and utilization of the native culture in the educational system.

Robertson, Delorme W. "Tuberculosis among the Sioux Indians," Review of Reviews, XXXIII May, 1906), 340-341. The health of the Dakotas before reservation life and after is discussed in this article. Tuberculosis was first mentioned in a government report in 1878, and the author notes that since that time the disease has decimated the Indian people. After examining all possible causes of the disease, he suggests remedies for this situation.

Swanton, John R. "Some Neglected Data on Cheyenne , Chippewa and Dakota History," American Anthropologist , XXXII (January, 1930) , 156-160. This article contains information on the relations between the Chippewa and Dakota during the Western migration of the two nations, the technique of woodlands and plains warfare, and the influence of the acquisition of horses on the competition. The writer believes that the western extension of the Tetons has been very modern-- coming from central Minnesota in the eighteenth century.

Thomas, Sidney J. "A Sioux Medicine Bundle," American Anthropologist, XLIII (January, 1941), 605-609. The description of the artifacts contained in a sacred bundle is given in this article along with someth ing of their significance and use. The main purpose is, however, to give a detailed picture of each item in the collection.

Thompson, Laura "Attitudes and Acculturation," American Anthropologist, LVI (March,1948), 200-215. This writer's discussion of acculturation includes a description of Dakota religion in order to show how the basic attitudes of their children are shaped by beliefs such as "the threatening nature of the natural world." She gives a number of Indian children's emotional response and moral ideology tests which reveal that their basic attitudes are determined by ingrained cultural values .

Useem, Ruth. "Statement on American Indian in Transition," American Anthropologist, LVI (June, 1954), 393-399. From her knowledge of the Dakotas the author states a few assumptions regarding the attitudes of the Indians toward life under government regulations. In general the attitudes "are negative," "unenthusiastic and fearful -- the outlook of a beaten people."

Useem, John; Macgregor, Gordon and Useem, Ruth. "Wartime Employment and Cultural Adjustments of the Rosebud Sioux," Applied Anthropology, II (1943), 1-9.

Voget , Fred . "The American Indian in Transition: Reformation and Status Innovation," American Journal of Sociology, LXXII (January, 1958). 369-378 . Three American Indian cults, Peyotism, Shakerism and the Great Message, are compared and analysed in this article. These reformations were discovered to be associated with anxiety about change in the individual, legitimacy of the self, and acceptance in the non-Indian society. The transitional individual is disclosed as possessing status in which both the old and new orders have personal and social meaning.

Russell, William H. "The Religion of the Sioux," Harper's Magazine, LXXXIX (June, 1894), 945-952. The hostile attitude toward Dakota religion expressed in this article indicated the difficulties faced by missionaries in Christianizing the Dakotas. The schooling provided by Missionary groups is described, but the author notes that in some respects the converts maintain their native habits while adapting to Christian education and doctrine.

Wissler, Clark. "Depression and Revolt," Natural History, XLI (February, 1938) , 108-112. The story of the last Indian uprisings and its youth movement is told in this article. The loss of the buffalo and resulting starvation caused an economic and spiritual depression which could not be relieved. The young people who learned English in the schools served as contacts with neighboring tribes, thus permitting greater intertribal unity. The Ghost Dance was thus spread among the tribes, and the subsequent events culminating in the massacre at Wounded Knee depended in part on this unity.

Wissler, Clark. "The Influence of the Horse in the Development of Plains Culture," American Anthropologist, XVI (January, 1914), 1-11. The coming of the horse to the plains tribes was a great event in their cultural history. The author related the dates where horses were first mentioned among the Tetons. Each group is discussed in terms of the changes and influence resulting from the introduction of the horse. The Tetons underwent the greatest change since they became great warriors and buffalo hunters only after gaining possession of this superior form of individual transportation.

GOVERNMENT AND MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS

Board of Indian Commissioners. Annual Report for 1876, (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1876), The report of the Sioux Commission, which negotiated the treaty of 1868 relates the events of the council, the provisions of the agreement, and the Indian attitudes toward it. There is also a history of treaties with the Tetons dating back to 1825 and demonstrating the failures of the government to carry out their agreements.

Board of Indian Commissioners. Annual report for 1934, (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1924). The Pine Ridge report gives information on the population, dress, religion, size of reservation, settlements, railroads, rations, poor health conditions, educational facilities, agriculture and stock raising. The report is a direct factual statement on these items without any detailed analysis of the existing conditions.

Board of Indian Commissioners. Annual Report for 1928, (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1928). Changes in land ownership, population, industrial growth, farming and education are related in this report of a visit of the commissioners to the Pine Ridge reservation. It supports the idea that the reservation residents are giving up their traditional ways, although mentioning that they have been more successful in learning trades than in farming.

Cardwell, Warren. An Introduction to the Modern Oglala Sioux, (Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Divisioin of Indian Health, 1958.) This pamphlet, designed for use in introducing public health personnel to the residents of South Dakota reservations, contains considerable information on the cultural background, reservation living conditions, nutrition and health practices, and other phases of contemporary life on these reservations.

Deloria, Ella C. "Dakota Treatment of Murderers," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, LXXXVIII (1944), 368-371. The traditional methods of dealing with murderers by the Tetons were: 1) immediate reprisal killing of the guilty person by a male relative of the slain, 2) trial by ordeal, and 3) adoption of the murderer in place of his victim by the latter's relatives. These methods are described and analysed in detail in this article.

Densmore , Frances. "Teton Sioux Music," Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 61, 1918. This comprehensive analysis of about 600 Dakota songs is the only authoritative study of its kind. The content and construction of Teton music are illustrated by songs used to obtain visions, treat the sick, for dances or games, and special songs for hunting, warfare, courtship and, children.

Dorsey, James 0. "Siouan Sociology,"Annual Report of the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, Vol. 15, (1893-1890). Tribal divisions and general organization of the Siouan nation are described in this report. Their social customs are explained and analysed with emphasis on the interrelationship of the various social institutions which provide the unity of Dakota culture.

Dorsey, James 0. "A Study of Siouan Cults," Annual Report of the U.S. bureau of Ethnology, Vol. 11, (1889-1890). The beliefs and practices of various Dakota cults receive a comprehensive treatment in this report. This paper contains much information pertaining to the languages of the cults and the meaning of symbols in relation to Indian perspective. Descriptions of the dances and vision-seeking activities are combined with an analysis of the songs and ritual accompanying these practices.

Feraca, Stephen Edward. "The Contemporary Teton-Sioux Sun Dance". Unpublished Master's Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York, 1957.

Fletcher, Alice C. "The Sun Dance of the Oglala Sioux," American Association for the Advancement of Science, 580-584. The different forms of the Sun Dance are described in this article. Particular emphasis is given to the numerous rituals which precede the actual dance and the roles of the shamen, the participants, and the spectators.

Goll, Louis J., S.J. Jesuit Missions Among the Sioux. St. Francis Mission, 1940.

Lovrich, Frank. "The Assimilation of the Indian in Rapid City", Unpublished Master's Thesis, Department of Sociology, University of South Dakota, 1952 . An attempt was made in this study to survey a sample of Indians who had moved to Rapid City and were breaking away from the more traditional pattern of reservation life. The survey contains some questions on attitudes, participation in non-reservation life, and structural characteristics, but lack of systematic theory limits the usefulness of the findings.

Lynd, J.W. "History of the Dakotas, "Minnesota Historical Collections, Vol. II (1889), 143-174. The religion of the Dakotas is the subject of this history. The author discusses legends and ceremonial beliefs regarding divinities of good and evil, the existence of the soul, sexuality, the spirit of infants, pantheism, sacrifices, secret societies, and purification. The Dakota religion is compared to other ancient religions of the world.

Malan , Vernon D. The Dakota Indian Family. Brookings: South Dakota State College , 1958.

Mekeel, H. Scudder. A Modern American Indian Community in Light of Its Past: A Study of Culture Change, Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University, 1932. A Teton Dakota community is studied in two principal areas: 1) the historical background, and 2) the culture change resulting from dynamic processes. In the first part of the thesis the author identifies the broad phases of culture change from the viewpoints and contacts of both the Tetons and their conquerors. In the second part he demonstrates that in each phase "identification with functioning institutions creates and sustains an individual's life values." He points out that the family is the most potent force in this direction, since kinship is always regarded as an essential determinant of the behavior of one individual toward another.

Mooney, James. "The Ghost Dance Religion and the Sioux Outbreak of 1890." Annual Report of the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology Vol. 14, 1892-1893. A complete history and description of the Ghost Dance Religion is found in this volume. Special emphasis is given to the religion of the Dakotas and their reasons for accepting the Messiah cuIt . A thorough account of the dance ceremony is given by participants . The resulting military actions, Wounded Knee Massacre, and effects on the Indians are also discussed.

Neill, E.D. "Dakota Land and Dakota History," Minnesota Historical Collections, Vol. 1. The culture of the Dakotas is treated under subjects such as language, religion, fondness for war. family marriage, love of finery, sports, superstitions, ideas of the future, and mode of life. While these generalized accounts are largely descriptive studies of all the Dakotas, much of the information is applicable to the Tetons.

Riggs, Stephan R. "Dakota Grammer, Texts and Ethnology," Contributions to North American Ethnology. The main portion of this report is a complete text of the grammer of the Dakota language. Also included with the text are many of the myths of the Dakota in both Siouan and English.

Riggs, Stephen R. "The Dakota Language," Minnesota Historical Collections, Vol. 1. This specialized study of the Siouan language describes the various branches of the language, the differences in dialects, and some of the similarities between Siouan and other American Indian languages. Rev. Riggs also expresses his belief that the Dakotas cannot continue to exist with their traditional practices, but must be Christianized in order to survive.

Smith, Marion W. "The War complex of the Plains indians," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, LXXVIII (1938), 425-464. "Warfare was one.of the main concerns of the Plains Indian. A survey of the literature shows that war parties were sporadic and ever present contingencies. The warpath was distinguished from the path of peace by a set of rituals which served also to accent the importance of warrior status to the scale of political and social prestige. The motivations and associations of this warfare link it with the emotional stress of mourning and the practice of scalping is revealed as fundamental to such linkage." This abstract indicates the general purpose of the article, but there are also frequent references to Teton Dakota complexes such as the system of graded honors, the war party, war dances and scalping.

South Dakota Department of Public Instruction and South Dakota Indian Commission. Indians of South Dakota, Pierre, South Dakota, 1954. This bulletin surveys the history of the Dakotas and their establishment on reservations. Some of the common questions regarding the Indian people in the state are answered, and there is some attempt to suggest possible solutions to the "Indian problem."

Speck, F.G. "Notes on the Functional Basis of the Decoration and Feather Technique of the Oglala Sioux," Indian Notes, Museum of the American Indian, Vol. 5, pp, 1-42. The theory that Indian dress is decorated in relation to the class of the article is suggested. In support of this thesis complete descriptions are given of Dakota dress for both men and women, as well as items such as moccasins, headdresses and knife holders. The use of feathers in these designs is also described. "Whether consciously seized by the mind of the artist or not, segregation of designs to certain societies and ceremonies, seen to be an outstanding feature of Sioux or Dakota Indian art."

Trimble, Bessie "Sioux Give-away Ceremony," Indians at Work, Vol. 2. The author describes a gift-giving ceremony on the Pine Ridge Reservation. She erroneously contends that the ceremony is designed to shcw how much property a person can give away at one time in order to exhibit wealth. Her description of name-giving for heroes, mourning, and gratitude which accompany the gift-giving ceremony indicates a more objective viewpoint .

Walker, J.R. "The Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies of the 0glala Division of the Teton Dakota," Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 16, 1921. The introduction of this paper is devoted to the attitudes of the Oglalas toward their ceremonies. The rest of the paper describes the Sun Dance, Hunka and Buffalo ceremonies in great detail, and analyses the role of the Shaman and each participant in the ceremony.

Wissler , Clark "Costumes of the Plains Indians", Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol. 17, 1922. The difference in types of dress of each of the plains tribes is discussed in this article. The Dakotas are referred to in two areas -- the female dresses and the male shirts. Each of these dress forms is considered in the light of historical significance.